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- Introduction
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Firstly, the state took responsibility for the supply of large amounts of water for both irrigation and other purposes.
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The state was also given the task of making available comprehensive funding for the development and implementation of such schemes Union of South Africa U of SA , , Sec. Secondly, in terms of governance, the state took the responsibility for the administration of a water permit system. In the case of industrial and urban water users the government controlled the way bulk supplies of water were distributed to stakeholders.
By implication the Water Act also worked in the public interest by taking responsibility for water quality and combating pollution in urban areas Union of South Africa U of SA , Sec. Thirdly, the new legislation gave the Minister of Water Affairs the right to declare any defined water control area a specified responsibility of the state. The state, through the Water Act, vested in the appropriate Minister a large measure of control of public water. It was the implementation of the principle of dominus fluminis—a departure from the the riparian-rights principle.
Footnote 3 However, certain safeguards and qualifications remained in place to protect the rights of private riparian users Union of South Africa U of SA , , Sec. Fourthly, beyond the specified government controlled areas the rights of riparian users remained in place. The only difference was that under the Water Act , riparian owners had to have a permit to extract water for storage in special, facilities.
Finally, the new legislation made provision for local control. In former times local control was with local water boards and especially the irrigation boards, but in terms of the legislation, this control was extended to urban and industrial users. The new water boards provided bulk water supplies mainly for urban and industrial purposes. A further stipulation was to extend the function of water boards to include regional sewage schemes. Irrigation boards and water boards were under the direct supervision of the state Triebel and Van Niekerk , p. The legislation made provision for circumstances of natural disaster.
Another reason given for the need to pass the Water Act of was that because of the high capital costs involved in increasing the scope of regional and multi-purpose water projects, the focus had to be on using the available storage facilities in the best interest of national development Turton et al. In this respect the emergent process of widespread industrial development in various regions of the country, as well as the hinterland of metropolitan centres, required more reliable and direct governance oversight with more storage facilities.
Water managers also had to be aware of the need to ensure that the quality of water did not deteriorate to unacceptable levels. In terms of industrial water pollution, the Witwatersrand gold mines were a good indicator of the kind of problems the water authorities faced by the s. However, it was not only the mining industry that required more water. In many respects the National Party victory of , in political terms, was similar to that of the former United Party government — Neo-marxist scholars have pointed to two dominant forms of capitalism in South Africa since the s: imperial capital primarily in the mining sector ; and national capital primarily farming and the industrial sector.
In the s, evidently as a result of government support for the development of the Free State goldfields imperial capital and the new National Party government that supported farming and industrial development national capital , there was a signal change in the animosity and strong competition of former times Davies et al. Providing water for industrial development had become a strong priority. In the near future this meant that the government had to take steps against the negative consequences of industrial waste and toxic mine water Adler et al.
The industrial hydraulic mission also had wide ranging social ramifications. With the benefit of hindsight, it is evident that the Water Act , No. The apartheid system discriminated against people of colour at a time when human rights, after the acceptance by the United Nations in of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, became a principle of appropriate conduct for all societies in an increasingly globalising world.
In South Africa the key reason for the state to shun human rights was the demographic reality that a significant majority of Africans was gaining a commanding presence in the urban areas of South Africa.
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In its report, the Tomlinson Commission of provided details on the population statistics for Europeans 2,6 million; Bantu i. African 8,5 million; Coloureds 1,1 million; and Asians ,, making a total population of 12,6 million people in South Africa. The government was determined to ensure that people of European descent the white minority maintained control Posel , p. However, in terms of government policy it was evident that a different set of values was at play in the rural areas, where people of colour predominated.
This became one of the most sensitive targets for criticism against the National Party government. Footnote 4 Consequently, one of the first issues to be tackled by the post, democratically elected government, was the provision of water and sanitation to areas that had previously been excluded from services.
Attempts by the government, after , to enable Africans to return to the land and farm in the rural areas—preferably in the homelands—were futile. In the 19th century most indigenous people had in fact already been displaced in the interior of the future Union of South Africa Bundy, as a result of colonial expansion. The crisis was intensified with the passing of the Land Act of Feinberg , pp. African labour was in high demand. The system of sharecropping Africans resident on white owned farms produced crops in collaboration with the property owner and received small portion of the profits on the Highveld in parts of the Free State and Transvaal, increasingly came under scrutiny by the government and African farmers found themselves in a disadvantaged position.
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Government wanted Africans to move into what were called Native reserves. Therefore, living conditions on white farms became more precarious. They could either become labour or rent tenants on the land. In the case of rent tenants, they were expected to pay a rent to the property owner.
In the case of labour tenancy, it was required of Africans resident on private farms to perform labour basically free of charge for the property owner Troup , pp. As their income from farming declined, African males increasingly entered into the system of wage labour in the urban industrial areas where they worked as migrant labourers to support their families and only periodically returned to their homes Wickens , p.
For obvious reasons the strategy did not work.
Introduction
Taking up employment in the cities, where their poorly-paid labour was sought in the mining and industrial sectors, meant they would not be able to settle down with their families. After World War 2, it seems, there was a renewed government drive to provide water to African reserves.
Agriculture was seen as being the future mainstay of local food production. To make this policy work, water was vital Turton et al. The National Party leadership was aware of the benefits of earlier strategies of using irrigation schemes to eliminate white poverty Tempelhoff ; Seekings For example, there are few references in the Tomlinson Report to irrigation as one of the low-hanging fruits of poverty eradication. Earlier officials of the Department of Irrigation were more optimistic.
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They were convinced that especially the Transkei region in particular, held considerable promise for farming activity providing that water coming down the steep slopes of the Drakensberg range was managed properly U of SA, Department of Irrigation DOI In contrast to the western parts of the country, notable for their aridity, the south-eastern areas of the subcontinent clearly favoured rain-fed irrigation schemes. However, the hardship caused by frequent and persistent drought conditions often had long-lasting consequences for rural African people in the Eastern Cape.
For example, no less than a quarter of the livestock perished on farms in the hinterland of East London following a devastating drought in the period from to Impoverished farmers had little or no hope for the future and for many rural people life in the African townships on the outskirts of East London held better prospects than remaining on the land Lodge , p.
The Tomlinson Commission recommended that farmers in the homelands be settled on smallholdings of between 1. It was said to be sufficient to provide for the needs of a household Tapela , p.
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Earlier experiments suggested that new irrigation farmers had to begin their subsistence agriculture on small pieces of land. In terms of general crop production, African farming performance in the s remained below par. According to the census data, white farmers produced on average 11,85 bags of maize per morgen 0. The lower production was said to be largely as a result of physical and economic constraints. There were also problems for white farmers on certain irrigated lands.
Consequently, government found it necessary to relocate Africans from such land.
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The issue became critical when the authorities realised that the local native reserve areas had not been rigidly demarcated. When in construction began on the Ebenezer Dam in the Wolkberg region, where the mountain catchment fed into the Letaba River, white irrigation operations in the Letaba region, between Tzaneen and the Kruger National Park, benefited most. The same could not be said of all homeland areas in the region. In the Tomlinson Commission reported that irrigation schemes had been started up in the African areas amounting to a total surface area of 11 hectares, offering livelihoods for plot-holders.
All the early projects were primarily river diversion schemes and the water was conveyed in irrigation canals without linings. After the state started upgrading existing smallholder canal systems by means of weirs or dams and lining the canals and furrows with concrete.
African farming prospects then improved Van Averbeke et al. Irrigation farming by Africans was not successful in all parts of the Union. By the mids a total of 28 of 37 new small farming irrigation schemes in South Africa had either collapsed or fallen into disuse. However, in the Transvaal, irrigation seemed to have sparked off enthusiasm among African farmers. In the Nebo district, free labour helped to build 60 earthen dams for irrigation and by — the initiative had contributed , bags of wheat produced by African farmers.
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The extent to which the government managed to turn African irrigation technology into a profitable enterprise in the early apartheid era, is difficult to determine. The jury is still out on how successful it might potentially have been. After most schemes became dysfunctional once government withdrew subsidies and support Tapela , p. There appears to be consensus that farming and reclamation initiatives by the authorities since the s in, for example the Transkei, were seldom successful. Moreover, research shows that these initiatives rarely contributed to the conservation of the environment Hendricks ; Crush and Jeeves ; De Wet Ever since the early 20th century Africans were attracted to the urban areas of South Africa to search for employment.
In many cases African townships established in the segregation era — on the periphery of the so-called white urban areas, were informal settlements. The Native Urban Areas Act of had the objective of improving the welfare of urban black people by the provision of housing and other social services Brits , pp.
However, as a rule local authorities were slow to help demolish the shack dwellings and to sponsor the construction of decent housing for African residents. The period from to , according to Harrison , marked a peak in the rate of black urbanisation in South Africa. In Johannesburg, for example, the number of black residents increased from , in to , by Harrison , p. However, there was a sting in the tail. Water supplies in the rural areas and the urban slums on the periphery of the large industrial urban centres remained hopelessly inadequate Gale , p.
From the s onwards the government had the responsibility of ensuring that there was sufficient African labour for the urban industries and the agriculturalists in the rural areas Davies et al. The absence of adequate water supplies, silently played an important role in shaping the fate of many African families in the urban areas. World War 2 was responsible for a significant disruption of social welfare services in South Africa.
The construction of new houses literally came to a standstill. In a number of sub-tenants living on plots in Orlando left the area with its overcrowded housing and settled on vacant land on the periphery, using rudimentary materials for the construction of squatter shacks. When the municipality of Johannesburg provided more land, local leaders became active in the squatter communities.