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Consequently, knowledge of the frost-free period can be used as a proxy for the length of time available for crop production [ 20 ]. The assessment of frost occurrence in Free State showed considerable variation from one place to another owing to the vast differences in topography over the province.
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The results of the frost risk assessment show earlier frost onset, late cessation of frost, and shorter growing period over the northeastern, central, eastern, and southeastern parts. These areas are more vulnerable to frost especially if planting is early and this forces farmers to delay their planting resulting in shorter growing periods suitable for short or medium cultivars [ 5 ]. Late planted crops in these areas are also in danger of not achieving full maturity before suffering from damage resulting in poor quality yield or production loss in extreme cases. The first frost at the onset of a frost period causes damage to crops at their later stages of development, while the last frost at the cessation of the frost period damages seedlings and young plants [ 11 , 21 ].
Farmers in these regions are advised to plant short season varieties taking into consideration all the frost indices.
Trends in frost indices are mostly favourable for increasing frost-free period implying that the planting of relatively longer cultivars might be suitable in the future depending on the rate of frost-free period increase. The length of the frost-free period denotes the growing period, and, in Free State, it is mostly between days and over days, depending on the temperature threshold and locality.
Long frost-free periods are evident over patches in the far western and northeastern Free State. These areas have low frost risk but it does not mean they are the most desirable places for planting maize or any other crops sensitive to frost damage under rain-fed conditions as there are other climate risks like rainy season length and agricultural drought that have to be considered [ 22 ]. In Free State, the frost differences in the risk levels between onset and cessation of frost were mostly 10 days from one risk level to another at all the temperature thresholds which does not denote vast temporal differences to the advantage of crop management in the province.
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Targeting of maturity before the onset of frost should be the practice without compromising on crop yield. In some places, like the eastern Free State, careful consideration of the cultivar which has a high potential but requires relatively lower heat units accumulation is desirable. Overall, very late cessation of frost occurs over the east and southeastern Free State.
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These areas are also characterized by very early onsets resulting in shorter frost-free periods as compared to other regions. In these areas, planting early would definitely harm the seedlings while planting very late would result in crops not attaining their full maturity before the risk of frost increases. The window for planting is therefore relatively short in these places. In contrast, most parts of the northern, western, and southwestern Free State experience relatively long growing periods making them ideal for planting long-season crops providing that other climate requirements have low risk in those areas.
In general, the results show low frost risk in the far western parts of the province, increasing gradually towards the east where the late frost cessation and early onset risks are high. Trend analysis showed a tendency of positive trends of frost-free period in some areas implying an increase in minimum temperatures with time. The rate of increase in frost-free period ranges from 1 to 5 days per decade depending on the location and severity of frost.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper. The authors are grateful for funding by the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries Project no. The authors thank Dr. Thomas Fyfield of the Agricultural Research Council for editing the manuscript.
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Special Issues. Academic Editor: Anthony R. Received 05 Apr Revised 16 Jul Accepted 02 Aug Published 05 Sep Abstract The study investigated the cessation, onset, and duration of light, medium, and heavy frost in Free State province of South Africa using minimum temperatures from to Introduction Maize Zea mays is a major crop in Sub-Saharan Africa as it forms a staple food of most people in the region [ 1 ].
Data and Methods 2.
Table 1. Information for climate stations in Free State province used in the frost assessment study. Figure 1. Distribution of the weather stations used in the analysis of frost in Free State province of South Africa. Table 2. Figure 2. Probability fit with Normal distribution for cessation of light frost in Bethlehem. Table 3. Figure 3. Time series of cessation of frost in Julian days from to for a Bethlehem, b Bloemfontein, c Bothaville, d Fauresmith, e Ficksburg, f Frankfort, g Virginia, h Wepener, and i Zastron. Table 4. Figure 4. Time series of onset of frost in Julian days from to for a Bethlehem, b Bloemfontein, c Bothaville, d Fauresmith, e Ficksburg, f Frankfort, g Virginia, h Wepener, and i Zastron.
Table 5.
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Figure 5. Time series of frost-free duration in days from to for a Bethlehem, b Bloemfontein, c Bothaville, d Fauresmith, e Ficksburg, f Frankfort, g Virginia, h Wepener, and i Zastron. Table 6. Trends in frost indices for Free State province of South Africa. References M. Smale and T. View at: Google Scholar J. Potgieter, and W. Manley, and H.
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