- Vachellia (Acacia) karroo Communities in South Africa: An Overview
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Remember me Forgot Login? Forgot your Password? The most detrimental effect of V. Vachellia species regenerate vegetatively and from seed, but regeneration from seed is most dominant [ 31 ]. The encroaching species of Vachellia are spread by seed, which in many of these species has impermeable seed coat resulting in a high percentage of dormancy [ 32 ]. According to O'Connor [ 33 ], the encroachment of woody species requires successful seed dispersal, germination, and seedling establishment.
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The two most vulnerable phases in the regeneration of Vachellia are during seed germination and seedling establishment; these phases are characterised by high mortality rates that influence the populations of Vachellias [ 31 ]. Seedling establishment can be influenced by competition from established surrounding vegetation, as well as moisture availability and irradiance [ 33 ].
Du Toit [ 26 ] has shown that V. According to Trollope [ 25 ], the plausible reasons why bush encroachment was not a serious problem before the advent of commercial livestock production could have included the control of bush by fire, mechanical damage brought about by wild browsers and climatic factors.
On the other hand, the factors promoting encroachment in the modern era are complex, with the most predominant being the introduction of domestic livestock and subsequent overgrazing and the elimination of veld burning [ 24 , 33 , 34 ].
Vachellia (Acacia) karroo Communities in South Africa: An Overview
The successful and prolific nature in which V. It is fast growing, tolerant of defoliation by herbivory and is resistant to fire and frost [ 18 ]. Its seeds do not only have a great tolerance to high temperatures produced during burning but may actually be stimulated to germinate by fire [ 35 ]. Clearing of woody species has been found to greatly increase grass and subsequently animal production [ 28 , 30 ]. Mechanical, chemical and biological methods are employed in trying to control the spread of bush.
Chemicals such as Tordon and tebuthiuron have been successfully used, but the use of Tordon is restricted by certain physiological and environmental conditions [ 30 ]. Concerns about tebuthiuron on the other hand pertain to the accumulation and persistence of the chemical in the soil thus posing potential threats to non-target species [ 36 , 37 ]. Biological methods sometimes employed include the controlled use of herbivores especially goats and fire.
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Goat grazing resulted in a marked improvement in the cover, composition and vigour of the grass sward [ 29 ]. Fire has also been extensively used in combating bush encroachment in savanna because it is known to maintain a balance of grass to trees and shrubs in the savanna areas [ 25 ]. Trollope [ 25 ] has observed that fire generally has different roles in controlling bush encroachment in the moist and arid savannas. In grassland, Du Toit [ 34 ] made observations that the application of fire to combat V. While fire was found to retard V.
All in all, eradication of V. As a result, destruction of a stand of V. The effect of V. For example, increased herbaceous layer productivity has been reported under tree canopies, due to favourable conditions such as improved soil water status and soil fertility [ 38 , 39 ].
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Likewise, V. First, V. Rhizobium possesses the enzyme systems including nitrogenase enzyme complex that convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrogen compounds useful to plants [ 41 , 42 ]. Legumes like V. This ability of V. In addition, V. The ability of V. It hence also acts as an indicator of surface and underground water, especially in arid land [ 2 , 5 ].
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The tree is further considered an indicator of sweet veld, which is highly valued for good grazing and fertile soils [ 5 , 6 ]. This is due to the beneficial effects such as provision of shade, improved soil fertility, and water availability, which lead to the development of palatable and nutritious grasses under the V. Several studies have been conducted on the positive effect of woody plants on grasses. In southern African savannas, Panicum maximum is well known to be associated with tree canopies, especially those of several Vachellia species.
The grass is strongly associated with tree canopy cover; it is common under trees but seldom occurs in the open [ 45 ]. Smit and Swart [ 46 ] suggest that such grass-tree associations, which exist in many semi-arid savanna areas, warrant that bush control measures should not simply imply a complete removal of woody plants but rather tree thinning with a view to reducing negative competition effects.
This kind of approach can ensure that the important forage contribution by P. This association is likely due to enhanced supply of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus under tree canopies and suitable germination conditions for P. A study investigating the relation between tree height of V. It was observed that in situations where there were a few V. Vachellia karroo is one of the most preferred species for fuelwood [ 48 ] because the wood has excellent fuel properties.
It burns clean with little smoke and is valued for its sustained high temperature [ 18 ] and thus produces high-quality fuelwood for many rural communities which still rely on wood for cooking and heating. The wood is also used as rough construction material for building traditional huts and fences in many rural communities [ 1 , 18 ]. The thorns are used as sewing needles, pegs or pins, while its branches are used in farms to make fencing kraals for livestock, to protect them from predators [ 1 , 2 ].
The bark, leaves, gum and other parts are used medicinally in many ways. An infusion of the bark is used to cure diarrhoea and dysentery, while the dried and powdered form of its gum is used for eye treatments [ 2 ]. A boiled liquid from the bark is sometimes used to treat cattle which have tulp poisoning caused by Moraea Homeria species, which are bulbous plants poisonous to cattle [ 6 ].
Other Vachellia species are known to have medicinal properties as well.
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For example, the bark of V. In addition to all the domestic uses of V. In fact, V. It is a pleasant tasting gum that is eaten by people and animals and has also been used for confectionary and adhesives [ 2 , 16 ]. This gum is similar to gum arabic, which is widely used for thickening many convenience foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics [ 1 ]. The wood of V. It is also used to make wooden carvings ornaments , which are very popular ornaments in the tourism industry [ 1 ].
The bark is used to make strong ropes and mats [ 2 ]. This bark and that of several other Vachellia species, notably V. Tannins are plant polyphenolic compounds secondary metabolites that act as a defence mechanism in plants against pathogens and herbivores [ 49 , 50 , 51 ] and hostile environmental conditions [ 52 , 53 ]. The riparian thickets and Nama-Karoo communities will only be mentioned briefly in this section, because they form the core of the Acacia Vachellia karroo Class suggested and described in more detail by Dingaan [ 54 ].
Savannas are one of the main biomes in the world and are the dominant vegetation in Africa and southern Africa [ 55 ], especially in Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe [ 56 ]. In South Africa, the Savanna forms the largest biome and occupies over one-third The factors delimiting the biome are complex and can be an interplay of altitude, climate, soils, herbivory, and fire [ 39 , 56 , 58 ].
Approximately 8. There are several conservation areas in the biome, which include the Kruger National Park. Savanna areas have not been adversely impacted by urbanisation, which could have been hindered by the hot, moist climate and diseases such as malaria [ 56 , 57 ]. Rainfall and temperature for selected locations in the three representative biomes of South Africa [54].
The Savanna biome in South Africa is described by Low and Rebelo [ 56 ] and Scholes [ 55 ] as vegetation characterised by a grassy ground layer 0. It may be delineated according to the height and degree of canopy cover of the tree layer as follows: shrubland, woodland, or bushveld depending on whether the upper layer is near the ground, dense or in the intermediate stages, respectively [ 55 , 56 ].
Savanna vegetation may be broadly divided into fine-leaved savannas found in nutrient-rich and arid environments and broad-leaved savannas in nutrient-poor and moister environments [ 55 , 58 ]. Broad-leaved species such as Terminalia sericea, Burkea africana, various Combretum species , Pterocarpus rotundifolius and several others dominate the higher rainfall areas, while the more arid savanna is dominated by microphyllous species where numerous Vachellia and Senegalia species dominate the tree component, but Colophospermum mopane is the broad-leaved exception [ 55 ].
The areas of the Savanna biome where V. They can also be found as riparian thicket on clayey soils along stream and riverbanks.