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- History of Physiotherapy Education in South Africa – the SMU & UKZN story – www.wellnesselek.hu
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Plettenberg Bay. Port Alfred. Port Elizabeth. Port Shepstone. Richards Bay. Somerset East. Thaba Nchu. White River. Many of the findings are similar to studies conducted elsewhere, mostly in younger populations due to the paucity of research in the older population. These stem from sexual behaviours and socially constructed gender differences between men and women in their roles.
History of Physiotherapy Education in South Africa – the SMU & UKZN story – www.wellnesselek.hu
In this study, both genders blame each other for the spread of HIV infection. Elderly women in this study blame men for spreading HIV by having a sexual encounter with younger women, while men believe that some women deliberately infect men. This position has been found in many studies. Literature has shown that gender stereotypes allow women to be blamed for spreading HIV infection Rankin et al. Men are often reported to be infected by women, who may be castigated by men and women alike, while less blame tends to fall on men as opposed to women who have multiple partners Peacock et al.
If HIV infection is discovered in a wife first, she is readily blamed by her husband, and in some instances, women may equally be blamed by other relatives, regardless of whose infection was discovered first Peacock et al. The fear of being blamed for infecting partners is to an extent responsible for lack of sharing of HIV status with partners Peacock et al. Tagwirei asserts that blaming either sex serves to reinforce stigma against a section of the community which is already suffering the scourge of the epidemic.
Mixed responses to disclosure were prominent in this study.
Some male participants believed that HIV-positive people would conceal their status and deny it, while others supported disclosure. The elderly men feared that they would be gossiped about if people knew their positive status. This reluctance to disclose as a result of concern about gossiping among men was also found in a study by Deribe et al. Female participants were open to disclosure, particularly if it was done by their doctors in the presence of their partners. Men and women in this study had diverse perceptions of the use of condoms. Both men and women were concerned about introducing the use of condoms with their elderly partners at their advanced age, as their faithfulness would be questioned.
Peacock et al. According to Scott , the issue of trust is vital, since requesting the use of condoms may provoke suspicions. One elderly woman had challenges with the use of the female condom. Elderly men were not shy to expose details of their sexual prowess, and the fact that as men they can engage in multiple sexual encounters. In this study, older men stated that they lust after women and that because they are men, they can have as many partners as they can, implying that they cannot help themselves.
A similar study on sexual and reproductive health of South African men shows than men tend to lack self-control and feel that they are invincible, which could undermine their HIV risk perception Stern et al. Older women in this study felt relegated to accepting that men have the right to multiple partners. This phenomenon was also found in a study by Lotfi et al. Findings in this study indicate how women are complicit with hegemonic masculine norms. For example, some women endorsed the idea that men can indulge in extramarital sex once they experience menopause. This is a social construction designed for women in African tradition, according to Baloyi , where sexual intercourse is not expected to be a long-life practice for women, and when they enter menopause, they are no longer considered suitable to have sex.
Some sociocultural factors in developing countries indeed include toleration of male promiscuity and resistance to fidelity Barrett et al. Male participants also stated that they can sleep with women in exchange for money. The power imbalance between men and women also translates into economic dependency for women. Women are frequently blamed as vectors of HIV transmission, although this is contrary to the facts.
In this study, the blame for transmitting HIV infection seems to be allocated in both directions, with males and females blaming each other. This study confirms the pervasive notion of the promotion of double standards for males. Elderly men seemed to increase their clout according to the number of relationships they can have by virtue of being men, while women felt relegated to accepting that men have the right to multiple partners.
Most societies in Africa expect their women to be monogamous but expect men to have extramarital affairs Rankin et al. These cultural practices place women at a particular disadvantage regarding safe sex Scott Some older females promoted extramarital relationships, as they felt that they have reached menopause and have no sexual desire. Male participants were opposed to introducing a condom with their wives, as they feared that their fidelity would be questioned. Females claimed that men do not want to use condoms.
Evidence shows that condom use within marriage suggests lack of trust between partners and consequently betrays the intimacy that is necessary within a marital relationship. Mixed opinions about disclosure were noted in this study. Men believed that those infected would not disclose to their partners. Deribe et al. Female participants were open to disclosure.
Male participants seemed to think that women can offer sex, and at a low cost, because of poverty. This perception of the men supports the fact that unequal gender relations and unequal access to economic resources mean that women tend to be poorer than men. According to Scott , a number of socio-economic factors, which include the difficulty that women face in finding regular employment, have an impact on HIV transmission. The recommendations below flow from the conclusions of this study:. There is a need develop target-specific, culturally relevant behavioural intervention programmes for substantial behaviour change for the elderly.
There is clearly a need for more investment in health sector initiatives to encourage voluntary testing and disclosure of HIV status.
Ga-Rankuwa Industrial Park security officers shut offices over non-payment
The focus of health education should be on strategies to assist the elderly to disclose their status. Prevention interventions based on social and cultural realities need to be sought to empower elderly women. Women should be educated at an early age that they do not need to be complicit with hegemonic masculine norms. Equally, platforms need to be created for men to reflect on changing cultural practices that undermine women and perpetuate male dominance. Age-appropriate advertising campaigns targeting older persons should form part of the education campaign, particularly regarding prevention issues such as condom use.
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Search articles by 'Eucebious Lekalakala-Mokgele'. Lekalakala-Mokgele E 1. Affiliations 1 author 1. Share this article Share with email Share with twitter Share with linkedin Share with facebook. These stem from sexual behaviour and socially constructed 'gender' differences between women and men in roles and responsibilities.
Free full text. Published online Aug PMID: Author information Copyright and License information Disclaimer. This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. Go to:. Research strategy The study was located within a qualitative, exploratory, descriptive research paradigm because of its appropriateness for unravelling subjective phenomena such as the gender perceptions of older persons.
Recruitment The researcher is active in the community activities of the elderly, and visited luncheon clubs to recruit participants.