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This isotopic signature is consistent with other fluids located approximately to mbls in the Witwatersrand Formation South Africa Fig. The dotted blue lines indicate possible mixing patterns. Geophysico-chemical measurements were made for both the long-term and short-term studies Table 1.

The short-term study did not exhibit as large of a shift in electron acceptor availability as the long-term study and maintained a positive E h throughout Table 1b. The microbial communities of the and time points have been reported to be dominated by bacteria In order to investigate the community composition of the less numerous archaea, 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing of the archaeal V4—V5 hypervariable region was performed across all time points Fig.

For the long-term study , and , the archaeal community shifted from an ANME and Methanomicrobia-dominated community in to a Miscellaneous Crenarchaeotic Group recently assigned into the archaeal phylum Bathyarchaeota -dominated community in and a Halobacteria-dominated community in There is a noticeable difference between the T 0 , T 1 and T 2 samples community profiles and the community profile, despite being collected over the same two-week period. However, the filters used in the T x and filtrations have varied pore sizes, geometries, and casings and should not be directly compared.

Change in the CH 4 oxidizing community and activity over time. The predicted MMO from the targeted assembly is also displayed. S1, Supporting Information. Despite differences in the relative abundances of taxa based on the primers used, community membership does not appear to be significantly different between the 2 primer sets.

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The V6 sequences were selected over the V4—V5 sequences due to their shorter length and stringent quality filtering procedure see Materials and Methods. Proteobacteria within the family Rhodocyclaceae dominated all of the RNA datasets except for the dataset that was dominated by Hydrogenophilaceae. MO archaea and bacteria account for only a small percentage of the V6 rRNA sequences identified in the metatranscriptomic data 0. Metatranscriptomic species richness observed and estimated by Chao 1 and ACE metrics and cell concentrations measured in the field.

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Only one complete mmo gene closely related to Methylococcus capsulatus was recovered from the metagenomic and metatranscriptomic data Fig. Partial mcr A related to Methanomicrobia and Methanobacteria were also identified in the high-throughput data Fig. Assembled mcr A and mmo were translated into peptide sequences Data 3, Supporting Information. Metaproteomic data were searched against the collection of assembled McrA and MMO and a database of known McrA and MMO peptide sequences Data 4, Supporting Information to confirm that the transcribed genes were translated into proteins.

These observations were consistent with the relative changes in geochemistry over both time scales Table 1. S1, Supporting Information , metagenomic and metatranscriptomic data. Correlation R 2 between normalized metagenomic mcr A or mmo PEG coverage and geochemical parameters for the long-term study. Positive correlations are underlined.


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O 2 concentrations in and were below detection limit Table 1 but were detectable in 0. Likely related to the increased availability of O 2 , aerobic Methylococcus -related mmo genes exhibited their highest relative abundances within metagenomic and metatranscriptomic MO gene profiles during and a minimal presence throughout the remainder of the time points Fig.

The correlations between MO abundances and fluid chemistry suggest that a relationship between electron acceptor availability and populations of MOs exists. We therefore wanted to experimentally validate the response of the MOs to changes in electron acceptor availability. A second set of and fracture fluid enrichments Experiment 2 was analyzed for 43 days.

The methanogenesis control was intended to detect whether or not methanogenesis, and therefore also trace CH 4 oxidation TMO ,was occurring within the samples Zehnder and Brock The samples were run in triplicate and the standard deviations are shown. TMO was probably not responsible for the 13 C-CO 2 production in the endogenous activity controls of Experiment 1; only the methanogenesis control of the sample showed minor methanogenesis and thus TMO activity Data 5, Supporting Information.

Metagenomic, metatranscriptomic and metaproteomic data suggest that community composition, activity and function are changing in response to natural fluctuations in fluid chemistry. Methanoperedens' abundances to electron acceptor concentrations in situ suggest that electron acceptor availability plays an important role in MO population dynamics. Together, these results provide the most conclusive biological evidence to date that CH 4 oxidation occurs and is an integral component of the deep terrestrial subsurface carbon cycle.

This research was supported by funding from the National Science Foundation to T. Sloan Foundation to M. Sloan , subaward Research of P. Partial support for isotopic analyses was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. We are indebted to the logistical support of Sibanye Gold Limited, the management and staff of Beatrix Gold Mine and specifically to S. Maphanga of Beatrix gold mine. Reconstructing a hydrogen-driven microbial metabolic network in Opalinus Clay rock. Nat Commun.

Google Scholar. High rates of anaerobic methanotrophy at low sulfate concentrations with implications for past and present methane levels. Anaerobic oxidation of methane:mechanisms, bioenergetics, and the ecology of associated microorganisms. Environ Sci Technol. Craig H. Isotopic variations in meteoric waters.

Microbial metabolisms in a 2. Nat Microbiol. Nitrite-driven anaerobic methane oxidation by oxygenic bacteria. Archaea catalyze iron-dependent anaerobic oxidation of methane.

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Proc Natl Acad Sci. Water-rock interaction and chemistry of groundwaters from the Canadian Shield. Geochim Cosmochim Acta. New algorithms and methods to estimate maximum-likelihood phylogenies: assessing the performance of PhyML 3.


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Syst Biol. Anaerobic oxidation of methane coupled to nitrate reduction in a novel archaeal lineage. Evidence that participate methane monooxygenase and ammonia monooxygenase may be evolutionarily related. PLoS Genet. Draft genome sequence of the methane-oxidizing bacterium Methylococcus capsulatus Texas. J Bacteriol.

Langmead B , Salzberg SL. Fast gapped-read alignment with Bowtie 2.

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Nat Methods. Phylogeny and phylogeography of functional genes shared among seven terrestrial subsurface metagenomes reveal N-cycling and microbial evolutionary relationships. Front Microbiol. An oligotrophic deep-subsurface community dependent on syntrophy is dominated by sulfur-driven autotrophic denitrifiers. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta Comparisons of the composition and biogeographic distribution of the bacterial communities occupying South African thermal springs with those inhabiting deep subsurface fracture water. Molecular ecology techniques for the study of aerobic methanotrophs.

Appl Environ Microbiol. Monitoring of the microbial community composition in saline aquifers during CO 2 storage by fluorescence in situ hybridisation. Int J Greenh Gas Control.

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Monitoring of the microbial community composition in deep subsurface saline aquifers during CO 2 storage in Ketzin, Germany. Energy Procedia. The origin and age of biogeochemical trends in deep fracture water of the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa. Geomicrobiol J. Dissecting the deep biosphere:retrieving authentic microbial communities from packer-isolated deep crystalline bedrock fracture zones.

Rapid reactivation of deep subsurface microbes in the presence of C-1 compounds.


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  • PRICE: software for the targeted assembly of components of meta genomic sequence data. G3 Bethesda. High rates of anaerobic methane oxidation in freshwater wetlands reduce potential atmospheric methane emissions. Hydrogeologic controls on episodic H2 release from Precambrian fractured rocks-Energy for deep subsurface life on Earth and Mars.

    Effect of dilution rate on metabolic pathway shift between aceticlastic and nonaceticlastic methanogenesis in chemostat cultivation. Variations in microbial carbon sources and cycling in the deep continental subsurface.

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    Thauer RK. Anaerobic oxidation of methane with sulfate:on the reversibility of the reactions that are catalyzed by enzymes also involved in methanogenesis from CO 2. Curr Opin Microbiol. Growth of anaerobic methane-oxidizing archaea and sulfate-reducing bacteria in a high-pressure membrane capsule bioreactor. Microbial hydrocarbon gases in the Witwatersrand Basin, South Africa: Implications for the deep biosphere1. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. Intercellular wiring enables electron transfer between methanotrophic archaea and bacteria.

    The relative abundances of resolved l2 CH 2 D 2 and 13 CH 3 D and mechanisms controlling isotopic bond ordering in abiotic and biotic methane gases.

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