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This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. Data Availability: The authors confirm that all data underlying the findings are fully available without restriction.
McGregor Museum, Kimberley is the repository for all collections described here as well as our data inventory number Analysis can be arranged by permission from the McGregor Museum. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. Early to Middle Pleistocene localities that incorporate extremely high numbers of lithic artefacts present a challenge to our understanding of early hominin behaviour.
There are also localities with a more ambiguous character such as the site of Canteen Kopje, South Africa [6] , [7] which includes high densities of both production debris and finished artefacts. Both the quarry sites and sites dominated by finished artefacts provide evidence of stone tool transport but these sites also raise questions about group size and organization of activity among early hominin groups.
Kathu Townlands is a site situated between the Kuruman Hills to the east and the Langberge mountains to the west on a low hill and is covered with a dense surface of lithics interspersed with exposures of bedrock, calcrete, and sand Figure 1 — 2. Location map within South Africa. Location Map with relation to the regional topography and Wonderwerk Cave. Topographic context of sites of the Kathu Complex discussed in this article.
Grey shading indicates developed areas and areas undergoing development. Note that the boundaries of Kathu Pan are approximate and do not indicate the limit of areas of archaeological potential. Square shows the approximate area shown in Figure 2b. Aerial photo of Kathu Townlands.
White shading indicates approximate limits of the declared locality. Asterisk indicates location of excavations. Image source Terraserver. View of Towlands site north of Frikkie Meyer St. Detail showing scatter of artefacts on the surface of the site north of Frikkie Meyer St. Dense and broadly distributed archaeological deposits pose methodological and management challenges. The town of Kathu is rapidly expanding and this development is directly threatening Kathu Townlands Figure 1c.
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- Kathu Townlands: A High Density Earlier Stone Age Locality in the Interior of South Africa;
The site was designated a Grade 1 National Heritage site in however the threat to deposits beyond the declared area remain acute. The bedrock lithology is Precambrian, with exposures of banded iron formation BIF , which belong to the Kuruman Formation within the late Archean to earliest Paleoproterozoic Transvaal Supergroup [8] , [9].
There is a wide degree of variability within the BIF in the Kuruman Formation both in terms of the scale of banding and the percentage of chert SiO 2 relative to iron-rich minerals. The outcroppings at Kathu Townlands sometimes designated as jaspellite are dominated by chert and show no fine-scale banding.
As a result the structure of these rocks is ideal for stone tool manufacture and it is likely that the availability of high quality raw material is a major reason for repeated exploitation of the resource and the high density of stone tool and knapping debris at Kathu Townlands. Circular white to grey fossil traces are characteristic of the raw material found at Kathu Townlands. Outcroppings of raw material with similar fossil traces have not been identified in the surrounding region. The Kuruman Hills are today drained by a series of ephemeral streams that flow northwest Figure 1.
None of these streams pass through the research area, the closest drainage is the Vermulsleegte, to the north of the site. There is evidence for far more substantial drainage systems at some point in the geological past in the area around Kathu. At the Bestwood site the archaeological horizon is underlain by at least ten meters of river gravels and similar deposits are known from other localities in the region, although no such deposits are known at Kathu Townlands.
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Calcretes are a common feature in the area around Kathu and figure significantly in the deposits in the vicinity of Kathu Townlands. Calcretes develop in arid or semi-arid environments as the result of lateral and vertical movement of carbonates in solution but the diagenetic process causing the development of these deposits can vary depending on local conditions [10]. At the Mamatwan Mine near Hotazel, a calcrete horizon approximately 2 meters thick produced optically stimulated luminescence ages of , and , years ago [11].
Without detailed analysis it is not possible to determine the age of the calcrete deposits at Kathu Townlands.
A sand sheet, derived from the Kalahari, is found across the surface at Kathu Townlands and comprises the matrix within which most of the artefacts are found. As with calcretes, there were likely multiple cycles of sand accumulation in the Kathu area.
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Research at Wonderwerk Cave has demonstrated that Kalahari sands were blowing into this region by 2 million years ago [12] and it is likely that the sands at the base of Kathu Pan 1 are of such an early age. At the Bestwood 1 site, sands overlie the archaeological horizon and are thus of a younger age.
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At the Mamatwan Mine the Kalahari sands produced optically stimulated luminescence ages ranging from 62—44, years ago. At Kathu Pan, evidence of early hominin occupation has been observed at multiple locations within the pan, but ESA deposits have only been excavated at KP 1 [13]. The lithic assemblage from St. The lithic assemblage of the underlying St.
At BW 1, located to the east of Kathu Townlands in a valley between two small hills, mining of sand has revealed a horizon at the interface of gravels and the overlying sands that contains abundant lithic artefacts [16]. These are characterized by bifaces, blades, and prepared cores and are dispersed over a very large area. Excavation at BW1 in exposed a surface of 36 m 2 with over piece plotted artefacts recovered. All artefacts were observed lying flat on at the interface between the sands and gravels.
The extremely fresh condition of the lithic artefacts at Bestwood 1 argues against this accumulation being a palimpsest deposited over a long period, or as the result of deflation. The possibility that the concentration of artefacts in a single horizon is the result of bioturbation also seems unlikely [17]. The excavated area is apparently representative of an extensive occupation covering several hectares. Kathu Townlands is located approximate 56 km. The archaeological deposit at Kathu Townlands was brought to the attention of archaeologists in by Naas Viljoen, the manager of the property [20] , [21].
The site was first described in a permit report submitted to the National Monuments Council outlining the results of a large scale survey for archaeological resources in the region [22]. Shortly afterwards, the outcropping of ironstone and the tremendous amount of artefacts was used as a source of road gravel. Mr Viljoen notified Mr Beaumont who was excavating at KP1 at the time that he had observed workmen using gravel that was composed primarily of artefacts to repair roads [20]. Excavations at the site were conducted by Beaumont in , and then again in [20] , [21]. Unfortunately, the precise location of these excavations was not reported.
There has also been a general lack of clarity regarding of the extent of the deposit. The initial reports identified an area north of Frikkie Meyer Street. Since at least the deposit has been known to exist south of this road. The total extent of the deposit, particularly beneath the surface sands, remains to be determined.
The McGregor Museum, Kimberley is the repository for all collections inventory number and future analysis of these collections can be arranged by permission from the McGregor Museum. The size of the assemblage from this context is representative of all excavated contexts below covering sands at Kathu Townlands. For cores, measurements taken were limited to description and weight. A subsample was selected for photography. The sample from this single spit includes flakes, 10 cores, and 6 bifaces See Table 1.
In August excavations were undertaken as part of a data recovery project to mitigate the destruction being caused by a mall being built on a small portion of the known deposit [23] see Figure 2b , 3. The primary objective of the project was to recover samples from a controlled stratigraphic context distributed across the area slated for destruction in the limited time available. We aimed to obtain data useful for understanding both the horizontal and vertical distribution of the deposits over as wide an area as possible. The topographic map was produced by a surveyor for the mall construction before any surface modifications were made to the project area.
Note that the topography dips towards the west showing that the site occurs along a N-S ridge. This ridge is visible in the DEM in Figure 2a. The methods employed combined mechanical trenching to obtain data regarding the geomorphology, followed by hand excavations to obtain archaeological samples Figure 3.
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Horizontal control across the project was maintained with averaged GPS waypoints. Vertical associations were able to be correlated using a high resolution topographic map of the project area 20 cm intervals; Figure 3. Under archaeological supervision, ten trenches were mechanically excavated across the property. The location of trenches was chosen with the intent of providing a cross section of the topography of the impacted area.
Each of the ten trenches was cleaned to bedrock by hand and profiles were cleaned, measured and photographed. Additionally, a long trench dug by the developer was documented in an area that had been considered to be outside the site boundary. From these ten trenches, five were selected for further archaeological excavation to provide a horizontally distributed sample from trenches that were archaeologically rich.
These units were dug in 10 cm levels as measured from modern ground surface MGS. Vertical control was maintained utilizing a datum and line level. Each unit was dug to bedrock, all material was screened through a 3 mm sieve, and artefacts collected by level. All excavated material is curated in the McGregor Museum, Kimberley. The breakdown of the analyzed lithic assemblage is presented in Table 1. The flakes include Only pieces are fresh Maximum dimension for the large flakes has a mean of 4. The sample from the Beaumont excavation shows high fragmentation and a high degree of edge damage indicating significant mechanical damage.
Flakes smaller than 2-cm.